While these studies do well show that in such experimental paradigms, intimidating people often exaggerate the risk of adverse events, it is less clear whether this skewed risk perception is (a) related to fear-related stimuli or (b) related to unpleasant consequences that can to have such a meeting. In addition, it is unclear whether distorted risk perceptions are specific to individual fear or generalized to all negative events. In an online survey (N = 630), we assessed the perceived risk of facing stimuli related to fear and expectations of negative outcomes from such encounters. [Sources: 9]
Dissociation between covariance bias and expectation bias for fear-related stimuli. Bias in anticipation of threat and outcome of treatment in patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia. Perceptual confirmation bias The tendency of expectations to influence perception. [Sources: 9, 11]
Confirmation bias, the tendency to process information by seeking or interpreting information in accordance with existing beliefs. This biased approach to decision-making is largely unintentional and often results in conflicting information being ignored. Existing beliefs can include expectations in a given situation and predictions about a particular outcome. [Sources: 0]
By interacting with people who, in their opinion, have certain personalities, they will ask questions to those people who biasedly support the beliefs of the recipients. Additionally, by treating someone as expected, that person may inadvertently alter their behavior to meet expectations, thereby providing additional support for the confirmation bias on the part of the perceiver. Defeat can be encouraged by using absolute words such as “always” or “never” to create anticipatory bias. Exaggerating these offsets can cause a switching bias or a change in the direction of the association (for example, a true OR> 1 becomes <1) .2 There are several classifications of bias. [Sources: 0, 4, 6]
Sometimes the term bias is also used to refer to a mechanism that causes a lack of intrinsic confidence.1 Errors can be classified according to the direction of change they cause in a parameter (eg, odds ratio (OR)). Offset to zero or negative bias gives estimates that are close to zero (for example, OR is lower and closer to 1), while deviations from zero bias give opposite and higher estimates than true ones. This bias occurs in longitudinal studies that analyze the underlying definitions of a continuous variable (eg, diastolic blood pressure (DBP)) for an outcome (eg, stroke). [Sources: 6]
There is no bias in a matched study with a matched analysis if the risks of exposure-induced disease are constant over time and there are no sociable, select individuals from more than one case. The frequency of exposure is higher than expected in the control group, resulting in zero bias. [Sources: 6]
A study that looked at the two biases together showed that biases associated with meeting and outcome were correlated, meaning that arachnophobic women overestimated the risk of spiders in the room, and also exaggerated the likelihood of negative consequences of this meeting. [Sources: 9]
Confirmation bias also manifests itself in the tendency of people to look for positive examples. Importance Confirmation bias is important because it can cause people to forcibly hold false beliefs or give more weight to information that supports their beliefs than the evidence supports. Confirmation Bias Confirmation Bias A tendency to seek, interpret, focus, and remember information in a way that confirms your biases. [Sources: 0, 11]
Confirmation bias React to rebuttal evidence by reinforcing previous beliefs. Observer Expectation Confirmation Bias Effect When a researcher expects a certain outcome and then unconsciously manipulates the experiment or misinterprets the data to find it (see also “Object Expectation Effect”). Researchers or expectations bias. The tendency of experimenters to believe, validate, and publish data that are consistent with their expectations for an experimental outcome, and not believe, reject, or downgrade appropriate weights for data that appear to contradict those expectations. Researchers or expectations bias. The tendency of experimenters to believe, confirm, and publish data that are consistent with their expectations for experimental results, and to disbelieve, reject, or downgrade appropriate weights for data that appear to contradict those expectations. [Sources: 2, 8, 11]
Result deviation judges the tendency of a decision based on the final result of the decision rather than the quality of the decision. Exaggerated expectations. The tendency to expect or predict results that are more extreme than the actual situation. Exaggerated expectations. The tendency to expect or predict results that are more extreme than the actual situation. Pessimistic prejudice. Some people, especially those with depression, tend to overestimate the possibility of bad things happening to them. [Sources: 2, 8]
Pseudo-Confidence Effect Prospect Theory The tendency to make non-risk choices when the expected outcome is positive, but to make risk-based choices to avoid negative outcomes. Offset projection. The tendency to overestimate how our future shares our current preferences, thoughts, and values, leading to sub-optimal choices. Ironically, this is when we think other people have more biases than ourselves. [Sources: 2, 3, 11]
We found 7 cognitive biases that affect classroom learning, independent learning, and the feelings of many students. However, these thinking biases can have more impact on us than we could imagine, especially since many of us may suffer from the blind spot of bias. Understanding expectation bias is critical to being able to think clearly. [Sources: 3, 4]
This article identifies and describes some ST strategies that manipulators try to influence or control behavior, or shape the ideas and preconceived expectations of others. ST technology can be used in media, organizational management or advertising companies to create prejudices and influence personal decisions and/or the nature of relationships and judgments in the context by creating deliberately pre-formed expectations. The word “stinky thoughts” may sound a little derogatory or even funny, but the proven strategy is designed to negatively affect your thoughts and behavior. It’s okay to use words and phrases to influence your expectations and influence your behavior. Ridiculous. [Sources: 4]
Avoiding positive thinking by insisting that a positive example “doesn’t count” is another way to negatively influence and reduce expectations. Polarizing perceptions to establish black and white thinking with no room for grayscale is another expectation bias tactic. [Sources: 4]
For example, people with an optimistic bias tend to be overly optimistic and overestimate the likelihood of good events, while people with a selfish bias tend to remember the past in a way that reflects on them better than it actually did. On the other hand, this bias can make students worry about upcoming exams and over-exaggerate how awful they will be when imagining the worst-case scenario. This can cause unnecessary stress and anxiety about exams and exam preparation. [Sources: 3]
Unfortunately, this can cause students to expect their feedback to have a greater impact on their exam performance than it actually does. When this happens, students may put too little effort into revision and find themselves unprepared for exams. In other words, even if the search strategy cannot guarantee the content of my beliefs (since there is no way of knowing whether one day the evidence obtained will actually be favorable or unfavorable to my preferred hypothesis), my beliefs may be systematically less significant. accurate because they have not received evidence that one would expect to be more informative. [Sources: 3, 10]
— Slimane Zouggari
##### Sources #####
[0]: https://www.britannica.com/science/confirmation-bias
[1]: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22122235/
[2]: https://cognitive-liberty.online/list-of-cognitive-biases/
[3]: https://blog.innerdrive.co.uk/7-cognitive-biases-holding-your-students-back
[4]: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-media-psychology-effect/201311/stinking-thinking-and-expectation-bias
[5]: https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_2219
[6]: https://jech.bmj.com/content/58/8/635
[7]: https://hbr.org/2014/05/is-the-possibility-bias-keeping-us-from-having-crazy-fun
[8]: https://uxinlux.github.io/cognitive-biases/
[9]: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01676/full
[10]: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/confirmation-bias
[11]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases